Ethiopia–Somalia relations

Ethiopia-Somalia relations

Ethiopia	Somalia

Ethiopia–Somalia relations (Somali: Xiriirka Itoobiya-Soomaaliya) are bilateral relations between Ethiopia and Somalia. These relations are characterized by the land border shared by the two countries and a number of military conflicts in past years.

Relations between the peoples of Somalia and Ethiopia stretch back to antiquity, to a common origin. The Ethiopian region is one of the proposed homelands of the Horn of Africa's various Afro-Asiatic communities.^[1]

In the 14th and 15th the Ethiopian Empire sought to control the trades routes from ports such as Zeila and forcibly convert the Muslim population of the Horn of Africa.^[2] During the reign of Amda Seyon I, the Ethiopians invaded the Muslim Sultanates of Hadiya, Bale, Dawaro, Sharkha, Ifat and Arababni. However the Somali Sultanate of Ifat and its successor Adal managed to beat back Ethiopian expeditions and maintain complete independence from Ethiopian rule.^[3]

The 14th century was marked by a string of significant Adalite victory as no less than 5 Ethiopian emperors died in failed assaults on Adal and two disastrous failed invasions of Adal during the reign of Baeda Maryam and his son Eskender lead to the end Ethiopian attempts to subjugate Adal.^[4] Conversely, Adalite campaigns in Ethiopia penetrated deep into the Habesha interior up to the Blue Nile and outlying Ethiopian provinces were even forced to pay tribute to the Adalites.^[5]

In 1529 in response to increasing Ethiopian raids on the Adalite frontier during a succession crisis, the leader of Adal, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad Gurey or Gragn) began a campaign to conquer the entirety of Ethiopia in order to vanquish the Ethiopian threat permanently.^[2][6] The initial stages of the campaign were very successful and after Ahmed’s victory at the Battle of Amba Sel, Dawit II was never again in a position to offer a pitched battle to his army and was subsequently was forced to live as an outlaw.^{[7] [8]} By 1535 Ahmed manage to conquer the entirety of Ethiopia and forge an empire stretching from Cape Guardafui to the Taka Mountains, near modern-day Kassala.^[9] However, in 1541 the Ethiopians managed to secure the assistance of Cristóvão da Gama's Portuguese troops and maintain their domain's autonomy. The conflict between polities reached a stalemate, as each had exhausted their resources and manpower. This resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come. Imam Ahmad’s invasion was arguably the single most important chapter in Ethiopia's long history. The destruction of cultural assets and national pride was immense. Imam Ahmad’s invasion left an indelible mark on the Ethiopian psyche. As Paul B. Henze writes, "In Ethiopia the damage which Ahmad Gragn did has never been forgotten. Every Christian highlander still hears tales of Gragn in his childhood."^[10] Haile Selassie referred to him in his memoirs: "I have often had villagers in northern Ethiopia point out sites of towns, forts, churches and monasteries destroyed by Gragn as if these catastrophes had occurred only yesterday."^[10] Shewan folklore portrays Imam Ahmed as a giant of mythical stature who was only halted by 500 men, on 500 horses, with 500 rifle shots.^[11] Ethiopian chronicles claim that 90% of the Empire was islamized during his conquests.^[12] Many historians trace the origins of modern hostility between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.^[13] Haggai Erlich coined the term 'Ahmed Gragn Syndrome' to describe how the conflict created a religious fault line, compelling Ethiopia's increasingly hegemonic Christian rulers to constantly question the loyalty of Muslim populations. This perception contributed to their subsequent policies of alienation and subjugation, which were guided by religious preferences and laid the groundwork for future conflicts in the region.

In 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis,^[14] the British authorities in British Somaliland "returned" the Haud — an important Somali pastoral area that was presumably 'protected' by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886 — and the Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against Somali raids.^[15] Britain included the provision that the Somali inhabitants would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over the area.^[16] This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.^[16]

Tensions over the Ogaden region later flared up again immediately after Somalia had acquired its independence in 1960. On 16 June 1963, Somali guerrillas started an insurgency at Hodayo after Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie rejected their demand for self-government in the Ogaden. The Somali government initially refused to support the guerrilla forces, which eventually numbered about 3,000. However, in January 1964, after Ethiopia sent reinforcements to the Ogaden, Somali forces launched ground and air attacks across the border and started providing assistance to the guerrillas. The Ethiopian Air Force responded with retaliatory strikes across the southwestern frontier against Feerfeer, northeast of Beledweyne and Galkacyo. On 6 March 1964, the Somali and Ethiopian authorities agreed to a cease-fire. At the end of the month, the two sides signed an accord in Khartoum, Sudan, pledging to withdraw their troops from the border, cease hostile propaganda, and start peace negotiations. Somalia also terminated its support of the guerrillas.

In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the Siad Barre government in Somalia sought to incorporate the Ogaden into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army and followed them as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90 percent of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as Jijiga and put heavy pressure on Dire Dawa, threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a Soviet-led coalition of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Russian experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist Derg regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere, eventually enabling it to build the largest army on the continent.^[17]

With changes in leadership in the early 1990s brought on by the outbreak of the Somali Civil War and Ethiopian Civil War, respectively, relations between the Somali and Ethiopian authorities entered a new phase. In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) assumed control of much of the southern part of Somalia and promptly imposed Shari'a law. The newly established Transitional Federal Government sought to reaffirm its authority, and, with the assistance of Ethiopian troops, African Union peacekeepers and air support by the United States, managed to drive out the rival ICU.^[18] Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including Al-Shabaab, regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. By January 2009, the militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat.^[19] Between 31 May and 9 June 2008, representatives of Somalia's TFG and the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the UN. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected its leader to office.^[20]

In October 2011, a coordinated multinational operation began against Al-Shabaab in southern Somalia, with the Ethiopian military eventually joining the mission the following month.^[21] According to Ramtane Lamamra, the AU Commissioner for Peace and Security, the additional Ethiopian and AU troop reinforcements are expected to help the Somali authorities gradually expand their territorial control.^[22]

The Federal Government of Somalia was later established on August 20, 2012,^[23] representing the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.^[23] The following month, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was elected as the new Somali government's first President, with the Ethiopian authorities welcoming his selection and newly appointed Prime Minister of Ethiopia Hailemariam Desalegn attending Mohamud's inauguration ceremony.^[24]

On January 1, 2024, Ethiopia and Somaliland signed a memorandum of understanding giving Ethiopia access to the Red Sea via the port of Berbera in return for recognizing Somaliland. The announcement infuriated Somalia, which recalled its ambassador to Ethiopia and immediately declared blocking the accord a national priority. On January 6, Somali President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud signed a parliamentary bill declaring the deal “null and void”, though this step was mostly rhetorical. ^[25][26]

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